If you are a postgraduate student working on your dissertation or thesis, few things will frustrate your supervisor faster than poorly formatted references. Referencing is not merely a bureaucratic requirement — it is a fundamental element of academic integrity, and it signals to your committee that you understand scholarly conventions. Among the most widely used referencing systems in East Africa and globally is the American Psychological Association (APA) Style, now in its 7th Edition.
Whether you are pursuing a Master’s degree or a PhD at a Kenyan university, USIU, Strathmore, UoN, Kenyatta University, or any internationally accredited institution, there is a very high chance your department requires APA 7. In this comprehensive guide, the experts at Tobit Research Consulting break down everything you need to know about APA 7th Edition referencing — from the basic principles to advanced citation rules — with practical examples you can apply immediately.
What Is APA Style and Why Does It Matter?
APA Style refers to the editorial and formatting guidelines developed by the American Psychological Association. First published in 1929, the manual has grown into the most authoritative style guide for researchers across psychology, education, business, nursing, social work, communications, and many other disciplines.
The 7th Edition, published in 2019, is the current and most up-to-date version. It introduced several important changes from the 6th Edition that students must be aware of.
The purpose of APA Style is straightforward: it creates uniformity and consistency in academic writing. When everyone follows the same rules, readers can quickly identify sources, evaluate the quality of evidence, and locate original works. Proper citation also protects you from plagiarism — a serious academic offence that can result in disqualification.
Key Changes in APA 7th Edition
Before diving into examples, it is important to understand what changed from the 6th to the 7th Edition. Many students and even some supervisors are still using outdated rules. Here is what is new:
1. The “et al.” Rule Changed In APA 6th Edition, you wrote out all authors up to five names in the first citation. In APA 7th Edition, any work with three or more authors is immediately shortened to the first author’s name followed by “et al.” — even on the first citation.
2. Up to 20 Authors in the Reference List Previously, only six authors were listed before using an ellipsis. APA 7 now allows listing up to 20 authors before using an ellipsis and adding the last author’s name.
3. Publisher Location Removed for Books You no longer need to write the city and country of a publisher in book references. The publisher name alone is sufficient.
4. DOIs and URLs as Hyperlinks Both Digital Object Identifiers (DOIs) and URLs are now presented as hyperlinks, formatted as https://doi.org/xxxxx. The old “DOI:” label is gone.
5. Running Head Simplified For student papers, the running head is no longer required. Only professional manuscripts submitted for publication need it.
6. Journal Articles Always Include the Issue Number Previously, the issue number was omitted if a journal used continuous pagination. APA 7 requires it in all cases.
The Two Core Components of APA Referencing
APA referencing operates on a simple but non-negotiable principle: every in-text citation must correspond to a reference list entry, and every reference list entry must be cited somewhere in the text. There are no orphaned references and no uncited sources.
1. In-Text Citations
An in-text citation appears within the body of your text, immediately after you quote, paraphrase, or summarise information from a source. The purpose is to briefly identify the source without interrupting your argument.
There are two formats:
Parenthetical citation — the author and year appear in parentheses at the end of the sentence:
Research shows that socioeconomic factors significantly predict academic performance (Mwangi, 2021).
Narrative citation — the author’s name is part of your sentence, and the year appears in parentheses immediately after the name:
Mwangi (2021) found that socioeconomic factors significantly predict academic performance.
Both formats are acceptable. Use narrative citations when you want to emphasise the researcher. Use parenthetical citations when you want to emphasise the finding.
In-Text Citation Rules with Examples
One Author
Parenthetical: (Ochieng, 2020)
Narrative: Ochieng (2020) argued that…
Two Authors
Always cite both names, connected by an ampersand (&) in parenthetical form or “and” in narrative form.
Parenthetical: (Kamau & Njoroge, 2019)
Narrative: Kamau and Njoroge (2019) demonstrated that…
Three or More Authors
From the very first citation, use only the first author’s surname followed by “et al.”
Parenthetical: (Otieno et al., 2022)
Narrative: Otieno et al. (2022) concluded that…
⚠️ Important: “et al.” is Latin for “and others.” Note the period after “al.” — it is an abbreviation. There is no period after “et.”
Same Author, Multiple Works in the Same Year
Add lowercase letters after the year to distinguish between works:
(Wambua, 2021a) and (Wambua, 2021b)
In the reference list, alphabetise these entries by the title of the work.
Multiple Sources in One Citation
When citing multiple works in one parenthetical, list them in alphabetical order by the first author’s surname, separated by semicolons:
Several studies confirm this relationship (Achieng, 2018; Kariuki, 2020; Oloo et al., 2021).
No Author
Use the title in place of the author. Italicise the title of a book or report; use quotation marks for an article or chapter title.
(African Education Report, 2020) or (“Poverty and Education in Kenya,” 2019)
No Date
Use “n.d.” (no date):
(Ministry of Education, n.d.)
Direct Quotations
When you copy an author’s exact words, you must include the page number (or paragraph number for sources without pages) in addition to the author and year.
Short Quotations (fewer than 40 words)
Incorporate them into your text within double quotation marks:
According to Njeru (2020), “the gap between rural and urban educational outcomes has widened significantly over the past decade” (p. 45).
Or in parenthetical form:
“The gap between rural and urban educational outcomes has widened significantly over the past decade” (Njeru, 2020, p. 45).
Long Quotations (40 words or more)
These are formatted as a block quotation — start on a new line, indent the entire block 0.5 inches from the left margin, and do not use quotation marks. The citation appears after the final punctuation mark.
Mwenda (2021) described the crisis in the following terms:
The persistent underinvestment in technical and vocational education has created a structural mismatch in Kenya's labour market. Graduates of traditional academic programmes find themselves ill-equipped for the evolving demands of industry, while employers struggle to fill positions requiring specialised skills. This misalignment, if unaddressed, threatens to erode the productivity gains achieved over the preceding decade. (p. 112)
The Reference List: Structure and Formatting
The reference list appears at the end of your paper on a new page. Centre the heading “References” at the top — it is not bold, not underlined, and not placed in quotation marks (some institutions vary on this; confirm with your supervisor).
Key formatting rules:
- Double-space all entries
- Use a hanging indent (first line flush left, subsequent lines indented 0.5 inches)
- Arrange entries alphabetically by the first author’s surname
- Do not number the entries
Reference List Examples by Source Type
1. Journal Article (most common source in academic research)
Format: Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Year). Title of article. Title of Journal, volume(issue), page–page. https://doi.org/xxxxx
Example:
Otieno, J. A., Kamau, P. W., & Wangari, N. M. (2022). Financial constraints and academic resilience among postgraduate students in Nairobi. African Journal of Education and Practice, 8(3), 112–129. https://doi.org/10.1080/12345678.2022.1234567
In-text: (Otieno et al., 2022) or Otieno et al. (2022)
💡 Note: Both the volume number and the article title are in italics. The issue number is in regular (non-italic) text immediately after the volume in parentheses.
2. Book (Entire Book)
Format: Author, A. A. (Year). Title of work: Capital letter also for subtitle. Publisher.
Example:
Mwangi, K. T. (2020). Research methods for social scientists in Africa. East African Academic Press.
In-text: (Mwangi, 2020) or Mwangi (2020)
💡 Note: Only the first word of the title, the first word after a colon, and proper nouns are capitalised. Publisher location is no longer required.
3. Edited Book Chapter
Format: Author, A. A. (Year). Title of chapter. In E. E. Editor (Ed.), Title of book (pp. xxx–xxx). Publisher.
Example:
Achieng, B. O. (2021). Gender and access to higher education in East Africa. In N. K. Waweru (Ed.), Equity and excellence in African universities (pp. 55–78). Kenyatta University Press.
In-text: (Achieng, 2021) or Achieng (2021)
4. Dissertation or Thesis
Format — Published (ProQuest/Institutional Repository): Author, A. A. (Year). Title of dissertation [Doctoral dissertation, Name of Institution]. Database Name. URL
Example:
Kariuki, M. J. (2022). Determinants of research productivity among doctoral students in Kenyan public universities [Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi]. UoN Institutional Repository. http://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/12345
In-text: (Kariuki, 2022) or Kariuki (2022)
5. Website or Webpage
Format: Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day). Title of page. Website Name. URL
Example:
Kenya National Bureau of Statistics. (2023, March 15). Economic survey 2023. KNBS. https://www.knbs.or.ke/economic-survey-2023/
In-text: (Kenya National Bureau of Statistics, 2023)
💡 Tip: For government or organisational websites where there is no individual author, use the organisation as the author.
6. Report (Government or Organisational)
Format: Author, A. A. (Year). Title of report (Report No. xxx). Publisher. URL
Example:
World Bank. (2021). Kenya economic update: From pandemic to recovery (Report No. 34). World Bank Group. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/35678
In-text: (World Bank, 2021) or World Bank (2021)
7. Newspaper Article
Format — Online: Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day). Title of article. Newspaper Name. URL
Example:
Mugo, C. (2023, January 10). Universities struggle with research funding cuts. Daily Nation. https://www.nation.africa/kenya/research-funding-cuts-4012345
In-text: (Mugo, 2023) or Mugo (2023)
8. Conference Paper
Format: Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day–Day). Title of paper [Paper presentation]. Conference Name, Location. URL
Example:
Oloo, F. A. (2022, September 5–7). Data management challenges in qualitative health research [Paper presentation]. East African Research Conference, Nairobi, Kenya.
In-text: (Oloo, 2022) or Oloo (2022)
9. YouTube Video
Format: Author, A. A. [Username]. (Year, Month Day). Title of video [Video]. YouTube. URL
Example:
Tobit Research Consulting. (2023, April 3). How to write a literature review for your thesis [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=example123
In-text: (Tobit Research Consulting, 2023)
10. Social Media Post
Format: Author, A. A. [@username]. (Year, Month Day). Content of post up to 20 words [Post type]. Platform. URL
Example:
Ministry of Education Kenya [@MOEKenya]. (2023, February 28). New guidelines for postgraduate research released. All students to note revised submission timelines [Tweet]. Twitter. https://twitter.com/MOEKenya/status/12345678
In-text: (Ministry of Education Kenya, 2023)
Paraphrasing vs. Quoting: What Should You Do?
A question almost every postgraduate student asks is: Should I quote or paraphrase?
The answer is: paraphrase as much as possible. Academic writing values your ability to synthesise and interpret information in your own words. Direct quotations should be used sparingly — only when the exact wording carries special significance, such as in legal, historical, or definitional contexts.
Original text: “The persistent gap in research output between public and private universities in Kenya reflects systemic differences in resource allocation and institutional incentives.” (Njoroge, 2022, p. 89)
Poorly done paraphrase (too close to original): The ongoing gap in research output between public and private Kenyan universities reflects systemic differences in how resources are allocated and the institutional incentives involved (Njoroge, 2022).
Well-done paraphrase: Njoroge (2022) attributes the disparity in scholarly productivity between Kenya’s public and private university sectors to underlying structural differences in funding mechanisms and organisational motivation.
Notice that a well-done paraphrase does not just swap a few synonyms — it fundamentally restructures the idea in your own voice.
⚠️ Important: Even when you paraphrase, you must still include an in-text citation. Paraphrasing without citation is still plagiarism.
Common APA 7 Mistakes Made by Students
Over the years at Tobit Research Consulting, we have reviewed hundreds of dissertations and theses. These are the most frequent referencing errors we encounter:
Mistake 1: Using the 6th Edition rules Many students still write out all authors up to five in the first citation. APA 7 requires “et al.” from the first citation for three or more authors.
Mistake 2: Missing page numbers for direct quotes A direct quotation without a page number is an incomplete citation. Always include “p. xx” or “para. xx” for web sources.
Mistake 3: Citing sources not in the reference list Every in-text citation must have a matching reference list entry. Run a check before submission.
Mistake 4: Capitalising all major words in article titles Article and chapter titles use sentence case (only capitalise the first word, first word after a colon, and proper nouns). Book titles and journal names use title case in the reference list, but article titles do not.
Mistake 5: Leaving out the DOI Many students omit the DOI for journal articles. If a DOI exists, it must be included. There are no exceptions.
Mistake 6: Incorrect hanging indent The reference list requires a hanging indent. In Microsoft Word, select your references, go to Paragraph settings, and under “Special,” choose “Hanging.”
Mistake 7: Alphabetising by first name instead of surname The reference list is alphabetised by the author’s surname (family name), not their first name or initials.
Heading Levels in APA 7
If you are formatting your entire dissertation in APA Style, your chapter headings must follow the APA heading hierarchy. APA 7 uses five levels:
| Level | Format |
|---|
| 1 | Centred, Bold, Title Case |
| 2 | Left-aligned, Bold, Title Case |
| 3 | Left-aligned, Bold Italic, Title Case |
| 4 | Indented, Bold, Title Case, Ends with Period. Text follows on same line. |
| 5 | Indented, Bold Italic, Title Case, Ends with Period. Text follows on same line. |
Most chapters in a dissertation will only use Levels 1 through 3. Use levels sequentially — do not skip from Level 1 to Level 3.
A Note on Plagiarism and Self-Plagiarism
APA 7 addresses both plagiarism and self-plagiarism (also called duplicate publication). Self-plagiarism occurs when you submit previously written work — even your own — as new, original content without proper disclosure. For example, if you published a conference paper and then used large sections of it verbatim in your thesis without citing it, that constitutes self-plagiarism.
Rules to follow:
- Always cite sources, even when paraphrasing
- Do not reuse substantial portions of your own previous work without citation
- When building on your own prior work, cite yourself as you would any other author
Sample Reference List
Below is a sample reference list demonstrating correct APA 7 formatting for various source types:
References
Achieng, B. O. (2021). Gender and access to higher education in East Africa. In N. K. Waweru (Ed.), Equity and excellence in African universities (pp. 55–78). Kenyatta University Press.
Kariuki, M. J. (2022). Determinants of research productivity among doctoral students in Kenyan public universities [Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi]. UoN Institutional Repository. http://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/12345
Kenya National Bureau of Statistics. (2023, March 15). Economic survey 2023. KNBS. https://www.knbs.or.ke/economic-survey-2023/
Mugo, C. (2023, January 10). Universities struggle with research funding cuts. Daily Nation. https://www.nation.africa/kenya/research-funding-cuts-4012345
Mwangi, K. T. (2020). Research methods for social scientists in Africa. East African Academic Press.
Njeru, D. K. (2020). Bridging educational inequities in sub-Saharan Africa. University of Nairobi Press.
Oloo, F. A. (2022, September 5–7). Data management challenges in qualitative health research [Paper presentation]. East African Research Conference, Nairobi, Kenya.
Otieno, J. A., Kamau, P. W., & Wangari, N. M. (2022). Financial constraints and academic resilience among postgraduate students in Nairobi. African Journal of Education and Practice, 8(3), 112–129. https://doi.org/10.1080/12345678.2022.1234567
World Bank. (2021). Kenya economic update: From pandemic to recovery (Report No. 34). World Bank Group. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/35678
Quick Reference Checklist Before Submission
Use this checklist to review your APA 7 referencing before submitting your dissertation or thesis:
- [ ] All in-text citations have matching reference list entries
- [ ] All reference list entries are cited in the text
- [ ] Works with 3+ authors use “et al.” from the first citation
- [ ] Direct quotes include page numbers
- [ ] DOIs are included for all journal articles where available
- [ ] DOIs are formatted as hyperlinks: https://doi.org/xxxxx
- [ ] Publisher location is NOT included for books
- [ ] Journal article references include the issue number
- [ ] Reference list uses hanging indent
- [ ] Reference list is in alphabetical order by first author’s surname
- [ ] Article and chapter titles use sentence case
- [ ] Journal/book titles are italicised
- [ ] The reference list is on a new page at the end of the paper
Need Professional Help with Your References?
APA 7th Edition referencing is not difficult once you understand the logic behind it — but applying it consistently across a 60,000-word dissertation is a different matter entirely. Reference formatting errors are among the most common reasons supervisors send dissertations back for revision, and they are entirely avoidable.
At Tobit Research Consulting, we specialise in supporting Masters and PhD students through every stage of their research journey — from proposal development and methodology design to data analysis, interpretation, and final formatting. Our team of experienced academic consultants understands Kenyan universities’ requirements and international academic standards.
📍 Visit us: Bruce House, 4th Floor, Nairobi CBD, Kenya
📞 Get in touch: https://tobitresearchconsulting.com/contact-us/
Whether you need a full APA formatting review of your dissertation, coaching on how to write your reference list correctly, or comprehensive research support from start to finish — we are here to help you succeed.
This article is based on the American Psychological Association’s Publication Manual (7th Edition). All reference examples are created for illustrative purposes. For the most current guidance, consult the official APA Style website at https://apastyle.apa.org.
